Michael Berjak and Jeremy Grimsdell

In this section

• Contents
• Preface
• Introduction

Contents

INTRODUCTION

1. FROM DATA TO DATABASES

1.1 What are data?

1.2 Organising data for storage and retrieval

1.3 Getting started on computers

1.4 The flatfile -- a simple database

1.5 Relational databases

1.6 Database packages

1.7 Existing botanical databases

1.8 Transferring files between databases

1.9 Connecting with other packages

1.10 Applications for botanical databases

2 WHO OWNS INFORMATION?

2.1 Relevance to botanical studies

2.2 Information flow: two situations

2.3 The value of partnerships

2.4 Guidelines for agreements

3 CHOOSING SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Software first

3.3 Database packages: basic choices

3.4 Guidelines for choosing a particular package

3.5 Hardware: basic components and functions

3.6 Choosing a suitable computer

3.7 Costs

3.8 Other equipment and options

3.9 Training courses, books and magazines

4 DATA STANDARDS AND CATEGORIES

4.1 Being aware of standards

4.2 Plant names (scientific)

4.3 Plant names (vernacular)

4.4 Life form

4.5 Geographical location of a plant

4.6 Plant distribution: commonness and rarity

4.7 Habitat type

4.8 Conservation status

4.9 Economic use

4.10 Names and addresses

5 PLANNING A PROJECT

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Is a computerised database needed?

5.3 Designing and testing a database

5.4 Data protection

6 USING A DATABASE: AN ETHNOBOTANICAL EXAMPLE

6.1 The example

6.2 Setting up the database

6.3 Data entry and checking

6.4 Manipulating the database

6.5 Outputs from the database

7 USING THE DEMONSTRATION DISKETTE

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Hardware and operating system requirements

7.3 Installing and running the package

7.4 Basic operating procedures: using the HAEMANTH database

7.5 Creating a simple database

7.6 Building a database made up of several tables

7.7 Manipulating the database MED_ALL

8 CASE STUDIES

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Plant list and distribution database

8.3 Ethnobotanical database (Uganda)

8.4 Ethnobotanical database (Guiana Shield)

8.5 Tree species mapping

8.6 Fire and grassland management

8.7 Woody plant classification

8.8 Land-use planning

APPENDIX

Contact addresses and brief descriptions of packages and databases

REFERENCES

Preface

This manual is aimed at people working at ‘grassroots’ levels on botanical aspects of conservation and development. It is not for those concerned with large-scale national or international databases. Rather, it is written for researchers who are themselves engaged in the collection of data in forest and village, who know that, these days, computers are often used for storing data and analysing information, and who have access to computers in the field or back at base. It is assumed that users have no special interest in computing but wish to benefit in their own research from the several advantages which computers can offer.

The subject of the book is the storage and manipulation of data in databases. Of course, there are many other types of computer programmes useful in ‘grassroots’ botanical research and some advice is given as to how connections can be made between databases and statistical and GIS packages.

The People and Plants initiative focuses on applied ethnobotany. The uses of botanical databases in conservation and development include recording the local and scientific names of plants, the uses of plants in terms of type and quantity in households, the distribution and abundance of useful plants in the landscape and the volumes of different types of plant in trade.

Ethical questions arise in certain types of ethnobotanical studies regarding the storage and general release of information regarded as culturally secret or in making known to outsiders information which might prove commercially advantageous. This is especially but not exclusively so in relation to studies of medicinal plants. Some guidance on ethical standards is therefore provided. More detailed comment will be given in a forthcoming manual to be produced in the People and Plants series – Biological Diversity and Traditional Knowledge – equitable partnerships in practice, by Sarah Laird.

INTRODUCTION

This book aims to give an introduction to the use of databases in botanical projects. The material is presented in an uncomplicated manner, and very little previous knowledge is assumed from the reader -- either about databases or computers. The book is therefore aimed at botanists who have little direct experience of databases but who would be interested in learning something about them, either for possible future projects, or simply for background knowledge.

Starting a database of your own should probably be approached with a good deal of caution. Current computer technology may appear to offer an attractive way of storing and presenting information. The reality may be quite different, however, and there are many pitfalls for the unwary. Much depends on the objectives of a particular project and on the question: Why build a database? Some guidelines for answering this question are given later on in this book. Then, if you do go ahead and build a database, there is always the danger of amassing data without continuing to be very critical of the reasons for collecting them. Project directions and objectives need to be assessed regularly to make sure that the data collection is still relevant and useful. In addition, there are the computer skills to be understood and learnt. Some operations may be relatively simple but others are not, and enough time must be allowed in order to use a software package effectively. Botanists should therefore ask themselves how much time they can afford to learn these skills in relation to other project work. Most people will probably need some assistance when operating a database package and this needs to be recognised at the onset of a project. However, the more you know about databases, the easier it will be to communicate effectively with computer and database specialists should they be consulted.

In order to provide an introduction to operating a database package a Demonstration Diskette is included with this book. Chapter 7 is, in effect, a user-manual for this package. The Demonstration Diskette is a general-purpose database package that can be used for storing information on any topic but is employed here for demonstrating some botanical applications. The package has been designed to be as simple as possible while still performing all the main database operations; it is thus possible to learn how to use the package in a few days, even for a complete beginner. Once the Demonstration Diskette is understood it should make it easier to cope with a more complex package if the need arises.

Many commercial database packages are also of the general-purpose type. They can be used for many applications and offer great flexibility; however they are also complex and take time to master. An alternative approach is to use a package specially designed for a particular job (in other words a dedicated package). The advantage here is that, provided the package suits your work, it should be less trouble to use. Several packages of this type are available for certain botanical applications -- for instance, for botanic garden records, for herbarium records and for species-based surveys. The main disadvantages with dedicated packages are that they are relatively inflexible and can be expensive to buy and update.

Much information about plant species is now held in databases around the world. For example, databases are used to store botanic garden and herbarium records, national or regional plant lists, and information on threatened and economically useful plants. In some situations it may be possible to incorporate information from an existing database into your own database. This raises questions of data standards and data transfer, issues that are discussed in the book.

Databases are used for a number of other botanical (and related) applications -- such as for plant distribution maps, plant uses (e.g. ethnobotanical databases), ecological monitoring, and land-use surveys. They are also used to store and organise data needed for complex analyses and treatments -- for example, for a multivariate analysis or for a Geographic Information System (GIS). However these more complex aspects are not covered in this book, although mentioned in case studies.

A final point is that in the case of databases containing sensitive or potentially valuable information -- perhaps on the properties of certain medicinal plants for example -- great care must be taken to protect the interests of the people who provided the information. This topic is discussed at an early stage in the book.